For example, in Hoek et al.'s ( 13) review of 25 published studies that utilized LUR modeling, only 4 considered VOCs. Like nitrogen dioxide, VOCs exhibit high spatial variability, but there have been far fewer attempts to model how they vary within urban areas. While nitrogen dioxide is an oxidative stressor, it has been suggested that it is more likely an indicator of some other exposure, such as a specific type of combustion particle or volatile organic compound (VOC) ( 6). These investigators reported positive associations between ambient nitrogen dioxide and lung cancer mortality in Rome, Italy Shizuoka, Japan and Toronto, Ontario, Canada ( 10–12). However, only 3 studies that have employed LUR models have evaluated lung cancer. Land-use regression (LUR) models have been increasingly used to characterize intra-urban variations in pollution. This suggests that pollutants that are emitted by local sources such as vehicular traffic and industries adversely affect human health. Some studies have recently found that within-city variations in air pollution concentrations are more strongly related to cardiovascular and stroke-related mortality than between-city variations ( 8, 9). Based on results from this literature, it has been estimated that 12.8% of lung cancer deaths are attributable to the anthropogenic component of PM 2.5 ( 7).
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This focus has been motivated by both the availability of historical monitoring data for these pollutants, typically from fixed-site monitors, and the knowledge that these pollutants can elicit oxidative stress in the lung, which may lead to systemic cardiopulmonary inflammation ( 6).
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These studies have typically focused on criteria air pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide and fine particles (particulate matter with a median aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 µm or less (PM 2.5)). While cigarette smoking is widely recognized as the primary risk factor for developing lung cancer ( 1), long-term exposure to ambient air pollution has consistently been shown to be associated with lung cancer in several prospective studies ( 2–5). Further work is needed to evaluate joint relationships between these pollutants, smoking, and lung cancer.Īir pollution, benzene, case-control studies, lung cancer, nitrogen dioxide, smoking, volatile organic compoundsĮditor's note: An invited commentary on this article appears on page 452, and the authors’ response appears on page 455. Our study suggests that long-term exposure to ambient volatile organic compounds and nitrogen dioxide at relatively low concentrations is associated with lung cancer.
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Similarly, an interquartile-range increase in the time-weighted average nitrogen dioxide concentration (4.8 ppb) yielded an odds ratio of 1.59 (95% confidence interval: 1.19, 2.12). Analyses involving the population-based controls found that an interquartile-range increase in the time-weighted average benzene concentration (0.15 µg/m 3) across previous residences was associated with lung cancer (odds ratio = 1.84, 95% confidence interval: 1.26, 2.68). Logistic regression was used to estimate adjusted odds ratios. Exposures were linked to residential addresses to estimate exposure at the time of interview, 10 years before interview, and across past residences (time-weighted average). Exposure to benzene, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen dioxide was estimated using land-use regression models. Participants provided information on several risk factors, including tobacco use, secondhand exposure to cigarette smoke, obesity, and family history of cancer. We conducted a case-control study of 445 incident lung cancers and 948 controls (523 hospital, 425 general population) in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, between 19. Few studies have investigated associations between nonoccupational exposure to ambient volatile organic compounds and lung cancer.